How does Shakespeare create a sense of tragedy in the final scene of Romeo and Juliet Essay Example

How does Shakespeare create a sense of tragedy in the final scene of Romeo and Juliet? Essay Four hundred years ago, late in the sixteenth century, William Shakespeare wrote The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet; a play that tells the tale of the love between the children of two feuding families, and the tragedy that becomes their love. Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet fall in love, then further dishonour, and in this course disobey, their parents by secretly getting married. When Romeos best friend Mercutio is killed in a brawl Romeo takes revenge (death) on his killer, Tybalt, Juliets cousin. Romeo is here by banished and has to leave Juliet to marry her fathers choice of groom: Parris. Juliet will not marry him and again disobeys her father. She takes a sleeping potion to make her appear dead. Romeo doesnt get this message and, on hearing the news of her death, goes to her tomb to take his own life. Juliet wakes up to find her love dead and in her pain takes also her life. Romeo and Juliet, is, by definition, a tragedy: 1) A play in which the protagonist falls to disaster through the combination of a personal failing and circumstances with which he cannot deal 2) Any dramatic or literary composition dealing with such themes. We will write a custom essay sample on How does Shakespeare create a sense of tragedy in the final scene of Romeo and Juliet? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on How does Shakespeare create a sense of tragedy in the final scene of Romeo and Juliet? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on How does Shakespeare create a sense of tragedy in the final scene of Romeo and Juliet? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Defined by the Oxford Dictionary In this play Romeo and Juliet are the protagonists that fall to disaster. The disaster is their death and its surrounding circumstances. Both Romeo and Juliet also committed numerous personal failings during the play. For example, they both disobeyed their parents and brought dishonour to their families, which in Elizabethan times (when the play was written and first performed) were considered very serious personal failings. They both lied and deceived people. Romeo had also committed murder and probably misused several young women before he met Juliet. Although the text suggests this several times it does not actually state it. Although all of the above would be considered personal failings, the failing that, in my opinion, lead to the ultimate disaster (the lovers deaths), was Romeo and Juliets foolishness and hastiness with love. They barely knew each other when they got married and they were quick to resort to passionate endings that, in my opinion, might have been avoided if they had only given it some thought. However, the play was written at a time where people strongly believed in fate and not having any control over your own destiny. Therefore, the audience would not interpret the ending as being the protagonists fault, as I instinctively have. They would see the ending simply as tragic fate. Tragedies in Shakespeares time were traditionally written as revenge tragedies; plays where the protagonist nobly tries to take revenge for a wrong doing unto them, this in turn then ends up in tragedy. Hamlet is an example of a revenge tragedy written by Shakespeare. Many writers at the time of Shakespeare used the traditional format of the revenge tragedy. Webster wrote The Duchess of Malfi, Kyd wrote The Spanish Tragedy, and Christopher Marlowe wrote Tamberlaine. These are all examples of typical Shakespearian revenge tragedies. However, Shakespeare broke this tradition in the writing of Romeo and Juliet. Romeo and Juliet differs from the traditional revenge tragedy for several reasons, but mainly because it is based on the positive emotion of love, and not the negative emotion of revenge. Although it does contain elements of revenge, for example, Mercutio and Tybalts deaths, it is not the main base of the play, or even a central theme. Another difference between a typical revenge tragedy and Romeo and Juliet is that revenge tragedies usually have a focus on abstract ideas, like evil and revenge, which are often personified. Rather than using this device as a predominant theme in Romeo Juliet, Shakespeare uses the device as a minor theme: the personification of death. The technique of personifying abstract ideas enables Shakespeare to conjure up an image of death, an image that is used increasingly throughout Romeo Juliet. This makes the idea and prospect of death (one of the main themes in the play), even more terrifying, and in this process creates dramatic tension. Throughout the play Romeo and Juliet unknowingly prophesied their deaths and create illusions of death by its personification, this shows the audience that there is death looming in the future for the characters, although the characters do not yet know it. By telling the audience that the protagonists of the play are going to die, the tragedy of the play is heightened because it is obvious that fate has already decided their tragic end. Although Romeo ; Juliet is not a revenge tragedy it contains many of the distinctive characteristics, such as themes of violence (in this case vendetta), conflict, and strong women. However, Romeo ; Juliet has the added dimension of the love and tenderness of the lovers. One of the distinctive characteristics of tragedies throughout history is that the heroines often have very strong personalities. In act 2, scene 4, Mercutio innocuously compares Juliet to some of the most tragedy fated, yet ardent and strong women in the history of literature. Dido a dowdy, Cleopatra a gypsy, Helen (Line 41-2) Dido: Queen of Carthage, tragically committed suicide after her lover left her, Cleopatra: committed suicide after her lover left her, and Helen: for whom thousands of men died. These women were also very passionate lovers, which is the context in which Mercutio uses the comparison, but it is also a warning, an implication of danger for Romeos behaviour. It is another prophecy of the lovers tragic fate. Most of the audience would have known about these characters, because stories and plays were one of the main forms of entertainment in Shakespeares time. This is another point at which the play is spelt out to be a tragedy to the audience. In the case of Romeo Juliet, and many other tragedies, the ending has to be tragic because of the nature of the tale. In this case Romeo has committed many personal failings, crimes, and worst of all has disobeyed the monarch. Juliet too committed offences. A monarch cannot be seen to be letting people who have committed such offences walk free and have a wonderful life with their true love (or so it would have seemed at the time of their death), so the characters would have to be punished in some way, the most suitable way being death, for the play to be acceptable to the monarch. Putting two lovers to death would not be nearly as passionately tragic as them taking their own lives through a misunderstanding. Putting them to death could also look bad for the monarch, as the characters are been portrayed in a positive light to the audience during the play. The most fitful end would therefore be for them to be killed in another way. The idea of fate being very responsible for the love rs death, E.g. Ah, what an unkind hour/Is guilty of this lamentable chance! (Friar Lawrence, Act 5, Sc 3, L145-146), adds the implication of the lovers being punished by the heavens for the sins they have committed. This added bonus portrays the idea that people who have sinned will get punished, which is very appealing to a monarch, and would therefore give the play a lot of support. A big part of the way Shakespeare creates the ultimate sense of tragedy in the final scene is by gradually building up tragic tension throughout the play. One way, that I have already mentioned, in which Shakespeare builds up tension is by telling the audience what is going to happen in the rest of the play. On line 6 of the prologue when referring to Romeo and Juliet the narrator says A pair of star-crossd lovers take their life, and on line 9 refers to their love as death-marked love. This tells the audience, before the play has even begun, that Romeo and Juliet are fated lovers and will die by way of suicide. Throughout the play the lovers unknowingly prophesied their tragic death. Eg. Juliet, Act 3, Scene 2, Line 59 Vile earth, to earth resign; end motion here; And thou and Romeo press one heavy bier! Here Juliet prophesies Romeos and her death by wishing their bodies to be carried to the graveyard together on a bier and be buried, ending their life. By telling the audience that Romeo and Juliet are going to die, the tragedy of the play is gradually heightened because it is obvious to the audience that fate has already decided the lovers tragic end. Although the prophesising of the tragic outcome of the play is a major theme throughout the play, there are many other instances where Shakespeare tells the audience what is going to happen. These instances are not, however, as significant to the plot as those which are about the tragedy because climax of the play is the actual tragedy of Romeo and Juliets deaths, at the end of the play. Another technique Shakespeare uses throughout the play is that of oxymorons. For example one of the oxymoronic themes that runs throughout the play is appearance Verses reality. Eg. Juliet (talking about Romeo), Act 3, Sc 2, L 75, Beautiful tyrant! Fiend angelical! Both of these statements are oxymorons, and throughout this speech Juliet uses similar vocabulary. Juliet is lamenting Romeos beautiful appearance could hide an evil reality when she finds out that he has killed Tybalt. This theme of appearance Vs reality gradually heightens the tragedy of the play because appearance of something in the play is often not the reality of it, which causes the very confusion that leads to the lovers death. For example, at the end of the play Romeo believes Juliet to be dead when she is not actually so, and thus takes his own life. This is ironic as when Juliet earlier thought Romeo to be dead, instead of Tybalt, she talks of suicide. Act 3, scene 2, L45-47, Say thou but Ay, and that bare vowel I shall poison more I/Than the death-darting eye of a cockatrice. An Elizabethan audience would have seen this repetition of events as fate, because people believed very strongly in things like fate at that time. The idea of fate is paired up with the idea of freewill to form another oxymoronic theme. Many of the themes in Romeo Juliet are paired up as oxymorns. One of the main themes running throughout the play is light V dark (another oxymoronic theme). Throughout the play Romeo and Juliet are described in light imagery. Romeo (about Juliet, on their first meeting) Act 1, Sc 5, Ln 44 she doth teach the torches to burn bright! The mood of the scenes and characters is also heightened by the use of light V dark imagery throughout the play. Father Lawrence, who married Romeo and Juliet earlier in the week, tries to help Juliet by concocting a plan, and in so doing gives her a sleeping potion to make her appear dead. Friar Lawrence (talking to Juliet about telling Romeo their plan), Act 4, Sc 1, L 123, In this resolve: Ill send a friar with speed/To Mantua, with my letters to thy lord. The theme of poisons and love potions is a recurring theme throughout Romeo and Juliet. When the Friar is first introduced in the play he is tending to his herb plants, when Juliet has to marry Paris she takes a sleeping potion, and it is the method that kills Romeo at the end of the play. This theme was very popular in Shakespeares plays, and in the revenge tragedy genre generally. It held much fascination within the Elizabethan audiences. Although Friar Lawrences intentions were good his plan was flawed and Romeo didnt receive his letter, because the Friar that was sent to deliver it was quarantined after visiting an infected house. This mistake was the beginning of a series of confusions that lead to the tragedy of Romeo and Juliets deaths. On hearing of Juliets death from his servant, Balthasar, Romeo decides to go to Juliets tomb to commit suicide. This is ironic, as Romeo has already tried to kill himself when he was told of his banishment. It is also ironic that the first time Romeo tries to kills himself he tries to stab himself, because that is how Juliet kills herself in the final scene. Romeo going to the graveyard to kill himself is very passionate and so increases the tragic irony from here on in the play. The fact that Romeo has tried to kill himself more than once, has been in love with two different people within one week, and has had many brawls, perhaps shows that he is prone to passionate out bursts that may not come from true founded emotions. The questions over Romeo and Juliets true love for each other become more blatant throughout the play, and gradually heighten the sense of tragedy as the audience start to question whether or not their love is a fickle teenage fancy. From this point in the play until the climax, the audience suspect that Juliet will wake up to find Romeo dead. This increases the tragedy for the audience, because in the audiences position the tragedy is now foreseeable, and therefore stoppable. When Romeo goes to the tomb he is in a state of grief stricken fury. He uses commands to show how determined he is. Act 5, Sc 3, Ln 27 (to Balthasar) Do not interrupt me in my course He is determined to force open the tomb with a crowbar, to get proof of Juliets death. This shows that he very violent and although he has been portrayed as a violent character throughout the play, every time he has met Juliet this violence has subsided and been overcome with love. This time, however, the image of death and violence completely takes over, ending in Romeos death, and then the death of Juliet. When in the tomb Romeo wants to dwell on Juliets beauty as he loves her so much. Act 5, Sc3, Ln 29 to behold my ladys face He then takes Juliets wedding ring. Act 5, Sc 3, Ln 30-31 take thence from her dead finger/A precious ring I think Romeo took her ring with the idea that it was a part of Juliet, and that he was taking a keepsake of their love. This makes Romeo and Juliets deaths feel more tragic because it was so sentimental and passionate. From the moment Romeo hears of Juliets death he becomes very violent in everything that he does. He uses very aggressive language like savage, strew, tear, and fierce. Romeo has used violent language at interspersed intervals throughout his courtship of Juliet, mostly mixed in with his descriptions of his love. For example, dry sorrow drinks our blood (act 3, sc 5, l 59). At this point, however, the violent language is constant and completely takes over all sense or reason. In act 2, scene 6 Friar Lawrence warns Romeo of having an overly passionate love. On line 6 he says that, violent delights have violent ends. Romeos death is also unknowingly prophesied several times during the conversation. Before Juliet enters the scene the whole of the conversation between the Friar and Romeo is very ominous and much of the vocabulary is mimicked in Romeos death speech. Friar Lawrence (referring to Juliet), Act 2, Sc 6, Ln 11 The sweetest honey/Is loathsome in his own deliciousness Romeo (referring to Juliet), Act 5, Sc 3, Ln 101 Death, that hath sucked the honey out of thy breath Since the mimicking is spaced out within the speech it seems as though Romeo is using the same words unknowingly. This makes the audience feel that fate has something to do with the circumstance, but because the mimicking comes from words the Friar has said to Romeo the audience also feels that Romeo is having to pay the price from not heeding the Friars warning of exercising excessively passionate love. The two points are examples of the link back to the definition of tragedy: a combination of the protagonists personal failings (not listening to the Friar, and therefore not listening to God) and events outside the protagonists control (fate). As events such as these accumulate and worsen, the tragedy grows until the final climax. The atmosphere in the tomb is very sad, as it is associated with death, but at the same time it is quite eerie and foreboding. Pariss page voices: I am almost afraid to stand alone/Here in the churchyard Act 5, Sc 3, Ln 10-11. The play is staged so that both Paris and Romeo leave their servants outside, which allows for them to fight as the two honourable men duelling the love of a sweet maiden, as in the classic traditional love story. Although this small part lives up to the tradition, the tragedy is increased by them both thinking that Juliet is actually dead, and therefore are fighting for no reason. This does have the cover of them having feuding friends, but the fight allows the protagonist (Romeo) to triumph and reunite his love with Juliets in death. The ambience is also very peaceful when Paris is in the tomb until Romeo arrives. This poignant moment is interrupted by the stagecraft of Romeos arrival carrying a crowbar, which is an extremely violent image. There is a huge contrast between the previous stillness of the tomb and the violent interruption of Romeos anger. There is a very tender moment where Paris lays flowers at the tomb. He uses quite a lot of flower imagery, and calls her sweet flower and a rose by another name which contrasts to cursed foot that he calls Romeo when he arrives. This contrast creates an instant shift in the mood of the scene as soon as Romeo arrives, from peacefully sad and mournful to a much darker, passionately violent mood. At this point the audience start to wonder what if Juliet had chosen Paris instead of Romeo. Would that really have been so bad? Would that have prevented the tragedy? The scene in the tomb is very dark, as the characters need torches. Both Paris and Romeo ask for the light on entering. This links to the implication of them fighting over Juliet, who is described throughout the play and in this scene using light imagery. In Romeos final soliloquy Juliet is described as a lantern. The dark imagery used throughout this scene helps build up the tragic atmosphere because it is associated with darkness and death, which is associated with tragedy. The violent language that both Paris (murdered, banished, villainous, vile) and Romeo (womb of death) use after Romeos entrance strongly contrast to Pariss earlier tender words to Juliet in the tomb. This brings back the oxymoronic theme of love V hate that runs throughout the play. This gradually heightens the tragedy because one thing so good and one thing so bad are unbearably entwined. Juliet (about Romeo), Act 1, Sc 5, Ln 138 My only love, sprung from my only hate! The tone of this final scene swings between love and hate, peace and violence. First there is the stillness of Paris mourning over Juliet. There is the violence and anger as Paris and Romeo duel, and Paris is killed. Then the peacefulness is restored as Romeo grants Pariss dying wish, to be laid with Juliet. The passion, anger, and ultimately the compromise and forgiveness on Romeos part increase the tragic element, and restores Romeo as the noble hero after his ferocious madness. Romeo and Juliet are alone during Romeos final soliloquy, which therefore shows that he is telling the truth in what he says. This stagecraft means that when Romeo starts to describe his love for Juliet and addresses her my love, my wife the audience know that his feelings are true, and that the emotions which drove him to such previous madness where based on pure love. This final build up of emotion and outpour of Romeos true feelings is the tragic climax at the end of Romeos life. In Romeos final soliloquy he refers to his soul as betossed which means that as he dies he is disturbed so that his soul will not be able to rest. This would make the ending of the play extraordinarily tragic for an Elizabethan audience, because many of them believed that a soul couldnt go to heaven or hell until it had found its resolution. They believed it would wonder, aimlessly, and many of them thought that that would be a worse fate than hell itself. Romeo talks of Paris to Juliet, which increases tragedy because it affirms the tragic events in the audiences mind, and in Romeos mind, directly before he dies. Romeo believes himself and Paris to be the victims of sour misfortunes book, so he grants Pariss final request in a mood of compassion for his rival. This brings back the theme of fate V freewill, one of the themes that makes the whole play a tragedy because Romeo and Paris have no control over there fate in this series of situations. In Romeos final lines he admires Juliet for her beauty (beautys ensign). This is significant because he is not admiring her for her personality, which is known to be the key element of true love. The way he admires Juliets beauty in this final scene is similar to the way he says he loves Roseline; for her looks. Eg. Romeo, Act 1, Sc 1, Ln 215 O, she is rich in beauty Throughout act 1 scene 1 Romeo speaks about Roseline in rhyming couplets. This is a technique used in Elizabethan sonnets, the poems of true love. This implies to the audience that Romeo is truly in love with Roseline, which we then find out not to be the case when he falls deeply in love with Juliet, in act 1 scene 5. The fact that Romeos love for Roseline was so obviously capricious and shallow does not reflect well on his love for Juliet. Romeos lack of veritable love for Roseline causes the audience to question what his love for Juliet is based on, and whether or not it is a fickle love that, if given more time, would have cracked and broken. It is tragic if Romeo and Juliet die, but even more tragic if they die and dont love each other, because that means they have died without reason. This questioning opens a new dimension of tragedy to the audience and thus increases tragedy throughout the final scene. In the tomb, Romeo asks Tybalt for his forgiveness for killing him in act 3 scene 1. Act 5, Sc 3, Ln 97-101 Tybalt, liest thou there in thy bloody sheet? Forgive me, cousin! This reinforces the previous point that Romeos mentality is very changeable and not always terribly stable. It also tells the audience that Romeo has regrets when he dies, as Tybalt cannot answer his plea for forgiveness, which links back to the point that Romeos soul was disturbed when he died, making the outcome of the play even more tragic to an Elizabethan audience. Immediately before Romeo dies, in his final soliloquy, he imagines Death wants Juliet to himself (Ln 103, Death is amorous), so he determines to join her (Ln 129, Heres to my love! Thus with a kiss I die. This adds the bitter emotion of jealousy to Romeos collection of sentiments, which increases the tragedy because it is another negative emotion that Romeo is experiencing when he dies. He is not dying peacefully, as all Elizabethans, and people today, would hope for. Romeo is a character that has an amazing attitude towards death. In act 2, scene six, line 7 he says love devouring death. This is something Romeo says several times throughout the play, and is something he definitely lives up to. It appears to the audience that in Romeos eyes his love is devouring death by his suicide. It almost feels like Romeo is hysterically trying to get-one-over on death, because death wants to make him live in the suffering hes experiencing. This hysteria accentuates the depiction of Romeos pain and creates an overwhelming sense of tragedy for the audience. In the final scene, one emotion Romeo does not demonstrate is fear. Many of the other characters do show fear, but Romeo does not. This portrays Romeo to be a very brave and honourable man, which increases the tragic element because the audience dont want to see the hero of the play die. In act three, scene 1 and 2, Romeo prefers death to banishment. This reinforces the idea of him not being afraid of death, and being very passionate in the way that he thinks. After Romeo kills himself in the final scene, Friar Lawrence and Balthasar enter the tomb. They make quick exchanges, which insinuate urgency and fear, and they use a vocabulary of urgency, which also builds up tension. This is a big contrast from the previous atmosphere of Romeos courage and violence, as the tomb is now very peaceful, but the Friar and Balthasar are very fearful. They keep mentioning fear. Eg. Balthasar, Act 5, Sc 3, L 133, And fearfully did menace me with death. On line 128 of the final scene Friar Lawrence ways, Have my old feet stumbled at graves! If you stumbled it was considered and ill omen by Elizabethans. This increases the tragedy. Throughout the final scene Friar Lawrence keeps making references to fate. For example, on line 146 he says, Is guilty of this lamentable chance! Shakespeare uses these references in several ways: It is a very effective way of making the Friar seem like he might be denying guilt, which is fitting considering the amount he had to do with the lovers end. The Friar also occasionally mentions guilt, like in the previous quote, which suggests that it is on his mind. The usage of guilt brings the classic tale down to reality, where tragedy is at its most poignant, and gory. It is an unpleasantly real emotion that people can relate to, and would be normal to feel in the Friars situation. This also enhances the tragic dimension of the final scene because it is an example of the negative affects that Romeo and Juliets death has had. This guilt is something Friar Lawrence will have to live with forever, and that is a terrible and tragic burden in itself. Even though this vendetta between the t wo families has seemingly reached its tragic climax, there are still incredibly negative feelings simmering away. As proved throughout the play, it is exceedingly hard to extinguish these emotions without them first erupting and causing yet more trouble. This is a point the audience will note when increasingly heavy emotional burdens are placed on characters, such as the burden of guilt placed on Friar Lawrence. Another reason Shakespeare uses Friar Lawrence to refer to fate is to link back to its theme that began in the prologue and has run throughout the play. It would have been especially important for Shakespeare to carry this theme right to the end, because inevitable death is a lot more perturbing as a concept than consequential death. Consequential death occurs as a consequence of freewill, the oxymoronic theme linked with fate. It is therefore controllable and less disturbing. Considering the Elizabethans beliefs, this was a very real idea for them. Concern within the audience would increase the seeming tragedy. Friar Lawrence is the most suitable character to carry the theme of fate through to the end of the play because he is a man of god. Even though Friar Lawrence has repeatedly done wrong, he is still a priest, and still has that sanctity and connection with God in the audiences eyes. This gives the allusions to fate and God more weight, and omen. For the audience it is an obvious link with heaven that suggests God might be directly creating this fate and unkindly mocking them by making them aware of this fact. This horrible emotional manipulation that Shakespeare creates in the final scene increase the sense of tragedy. This idea is opposed to the current standard view that there is freewill within faith (taught by the Christian religion). However, at the time of Shakespeare, such ideas were under scrutiny, and a major strand of Christianity in the Reformation was Calvinism (John Calvin, 1509-64). This taught that the Elect were destined to be saved, and that others would not be (the Doctrine of Predestination). Thus the belief of the audience would not necessarily be surprised by a priest being subject to fate (as dictated by God). Additionally, Friar Lawrence was a Catholic, and might be shown to have a variety of beliefs held heretical by Protestants. Thus Shakespeare can demonstrate that God has complete power over everyone, and that all are at his mercy, without rebelling against the established religion and displeasing the queen. These themes of God, Fate, and Freewill are especially distinct in this passage. The references to, and differences between, the themes of God and Fate in this passage are very distinct. It is almost ironic that the two are so closely entwined because of the strong beliefs of the audience. Friar Lawrence and Balthasars speeches increase the time between Romeos death and Juliets awakening. This creates furthermore dramatic tension. There is also a lot of stagecraft that adds to the tension of the death passage. For example, just as Juliet wakes there is a noise from within. At this point in the play the there is absolute tension within the audience. Juliet has just woken up, and the audience are desperate to know what happens next. This stagecraft usefully reminds the audience that the Friar is still there, but is actually placed at this point to create dramatic tension by delaying giving the fraught audience a resolution. This technique is used earlier in the play, at the end of act 4, scene 5. There are some musicians talking to Peter, the Nurses servant. This part of the scene has no important relevance to the plot; it simply builds up dramatic tension by keeping the audience hanging in the air, waiting to know what happens next. The dramatic tension that is built up throughout this passage increases the tragedy by making it more emotional for the audience. The events surrounding Juliets awakening have the highest atmospheric tension in the whole play, although they are not the tragic climax. The audience are completely on edge, they are almost shocked that Juliet has woken up, and, with the Friars preceding words (L 159, Come go, good Juliet), are all willing her to leave her dead loves side and go with the Friar for a relatively happy ending. At this point Shakespeare gives a glimmer of hope that the audience grabs onto, this radically increases the final tragedy of Juliets death because it raises the audiences hopes so that they have further to fall to the pit of grief stricken tragedy that is inevitably looming. The audience are shocked that Juliet has woken up because of the tragic timing produced by the stagecraft. Friar Lawrence has just reconfirmed the deaths of Romeo and Paris for the audience, and therefore reopened the wound of grief. This stagecraft allows just enough time for the audience to slip into lamentation mode, when they are suddenly jolted back to the reality that Juliet has just woken. The audience grasp onto this sudden transition only to be hit in the face with the question of what Juliet will do next. This combination between fast and slow moving drama causes great emotion within the audience, which in turn amplifies the tragedy. Juliets death has been prophesised many times throughout the play, so this is in the back of the audiences mind leading up to her death, but they dont want to, and wont believe it until it happens. This is accentuated by small glints of hope that Shakespeare throws in. In fact, Juliet prophesises her own death when talking about having to marry Paris in act 3, scene 5, make the bridal bed/In the dim monument where Tybalt lies. This increases the sense of tragedy because the audience already knows she will die, but they become entwined in the emotion of the scene and cant quite believe the spelt out tragedy until it happens. This opens different tragic dimensions, therefore escalating the tragedy, as Shakespeare explores negative emotions, like denial. When Juliet wakes, her first question is about Romeo. This is ironic as he is already dead. Juliet immediately asking about Romeo demonstrates her love for him because it shows he is her first thought, and constantly on her mind. Juliets final soliloquy is much shorter than Romeos because it is dramatically symbolic of a short life. This increases the tragedy because it is very tragic to die so young. When the Friar renters the tomb, he urges Juliet to leave, as he fears discovery (Come go, good Juliet, I dare no longer stay L159), but Juliet refuses to leave (for I will not away 160) because she prefers to join Romeo in death. Juliet is usually compared to a flower, which is delicate, but in this scene she is rendered gallantly. Her valour in this scene is strongly contrasted against the Friars fear, just as Romeos is contrasted with Pariss fear earlier in the scene. This lifts Romeo and Juliet back onto the thrones of the hero and heroine, which increases the tragedy because it is where they will die. When Juliet refuses to leave with the Friar, she turns to look at her love. Whats here? a cup closed in my true loves hand? (Line161) Tragedy is increased at this point by the fact that Romeo has left no friendly drop of poison so she can share the moment of death with him. Instead, she uses his dagger, to stab, and kill herself, which is tragically ironic because of the theme of stabbing within the play. This is the climax of the whole play, the ultimate tragedy. She falls on his body as she dies. This enables their bodies to be physically together in death, but creates a sadly unbeautiful heap of bodies. This stagecraft enhances the tragedy because it fulfils the prophecies of them being to together in death, whilst leaving the audience stunned by the awful sight of their piled up bodies. When the watch found Romeo, Juliet, and Paris dead, they summon the Prince, the Montagues and the Capulets. In the Captains short speech he says, We see the ground whereon these woes do lie, /But the true ground of all these piteous woes/We cannot without circumstance descry. (Line 172-182) This is a pun which the Elizabethans would have understood and appreciated. However, it is ironic in the context in which it is being used, because puns were, as are now, usually used in humorous situations and jokes. This gives emphasis to the tragedy because it seems as if things are so tragic that there is nothing left to do but laugh. The Prince is the first to arrive at the tomb, closely followed by the Capulets. The Captain tells them both what they will find. Romeo dead, and Juliet, dead (Line 196) The repetition of dead accentuates the tragedy. He also uses language that equates the deaths to cattle, for example slaughtered. This emphasizes the tragedy because likening it animals takes away any passion, moral or reason for the death, making the deaths pointless. The Capulets then enter the tomb to find the sight of their dead daughter. When Lord Montague arrives at the tomb he tells the Prince that my wife is dead tonight. He says that she died of a broken heart, because Romeo was banished. This increases the tragedy because it adds another tragic event to the list. It makes Romeos death even more tragic for the audience because it is more of a blow for Montague after his wifes death. The fact that Lady Montague dies because Romeos banishment breaks her heart enhances the tragedy because she died in sorrow, due to the tragedy that is Romeo and Juliets love. The final tragedy is also made more tragic for the Capulets. Juliet was the Capulets only daughter, and the last time Capulet spoke to her was the night that she prophesised her own death. He was arguing with her about her marriage to Paris. He insults her. Act 3, scene 5, Line 184, And then to have wretched puling fool, / A whining mammet, in her fortunes tender This increases the tragedy by creating feelings of regret, guilt and again grief, that the Capulets will have to live with for ever, for the Capulets. When the Prince first talks about the situation he uses words quite mild vocabulary, which could be simply referring to an accident, like misadventure. Gradually the tone of his words darkens, and he uses words like fear, and foul murder. He is also fairly unsympathetic to the families at first, because they have caused so much trouble in the past, which increases the tragedy. When the two families find out about the deaths of their children they initially become angry, and blame each other. This mouth of outrage (line 216) heightens the tragedy because it shows that they are still at loggerheads despite the situation. The prince confirms this with the statement, See what a scourge is laid upon your hate (line 292). The Prince promises to investigate, with punishment of death. And then will I be general of your woes, /And lead you even to death. Mean tome forbear, (Line 219-220) The idea of the Prince being prepared to commit more murder increases the tragedy. The Friar begins to explain to what happened. I will be brief, for my short date of breath/Is not so long as it is a tedious tale. (Line 229-30) His explanation is very plain, devoid of imagery and punning. He uses very tragic vocabulary, and repeats words like dead. This emphasizes the stark nature of the tragedy. The Prince concludes. Where be these enemies? Capulet, Montague? See what a scourge is laid upon your hate, That heaven finds means to kill your joys with love! All are punished (Line 291-295) He is saying that this tragedy is a sign from the heavens that the Capulets and Montagues should bury their vendetta and renew it with love, as that is the way their children have died; through love. This is the ultimate reason for the tragedy, and the moral that the families should take away with them. The Capulets and Lord Montague, united in their guilty grief, shake hands and heed the Princes words. They decide to make a pure gold statue of the lovers. This is ironic as in act 4, scene 1 Romeo says, There is thy gold worse poison to mens souls, Doing more murder in this loathsome world, Than these poor compounds that thou mayst not sell (Line 80-83). He is talking to the apothecary and saying that the apothecarys poison is good compared to gold, and the corruption that it brings. This heightens the tragedy of the ultimate reason behind the play because it suggests that although the Capulets and Montegues have put their abhorrence behind them, the true problem still underlies. The corruption of money, which had a lot to do with the feud between the families in the first place, still, and probably always will, live on. A theme that runs through most Elizabethan plays is the use of weather to create a mood within the play, and on the stage. For example, in Macbeth the very first scene (where evil first emerges) is set on a foggy, miserable, heath. Throughout Romeo and Juliet the weather is used to symbolise chaos, usually in morbid scenes. For example, when Romeo goes to the tomb. Elizabethans would have been aware that chaos in the heavens meant disorder on earth. It was a common idea at the time that has links with many of their beliefs. A good example of how the weather is used is right at the end of the play. In the Princes last speech he says, The sun for sorrow will not show his head. This shows that the tragedy is so great that even the weather is affected. In the passages of the play that lead up to tragedy, there are usually references to stumbling. For example, there is stumbling before Mercutios death, and Friar Lawrence is in the Capulets tomb. Elizabethans believed stumbling was an ill omen, which therefore would enhance the tragedy because the tragedy has been foretold to the audience. There are also a lot of references to sighing in the tragic passages of Romeo Juliet. To Elizabethans sighing was also to lose drops of blood. Within the context that Romeo and Juliet was written one of the most tragic elements of the play is the very fact that the lovers committed suicide. In Elizabethan times suicide was considered unnatural, and they believed it led to eternal damnation. The lovers being forced into the situation where they commit suicide enhances the tragedy. This means Romeo and Juliet have been forced into eternal damnation for the possible outcome of the end of their parents (not their) vendetta. The morals of which are very controversial and possibly tragic. Shakespeare comforts the audience with some good at the very end of the play. Even though the lovers died, the families reconcile to the idea that there should be no more murder, and no more tragedy. However, a big point of this, and all other tragedies, is that no happy ending can compensate for all the deaths, and particularly not the death of the lovers. Shakespeare has written the ending so because audiences of the time would expect the families to reconcile to restore the natural order of things. Another example of this is in Shakespeares Macbeth. Macbeth had to be, and was, killed, as he had committed regicide and was a symbol of disorder and chaos. The rightful order must be returned and harmony restored for the story to have a real ending in the eyes of that genres audiences. This is a classic feature of this period of Literature. Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy in all meanings of the definition. It is piece of literature that ends in tragedy, and this comes about through a combination of fate and the personal failings of several people, mostly of Romeo and Juliet. The tragedy is built up through the whole play by the increase in tragic events, like deaths. This is culminated in the last scene by the climax of tragedy: Romeo, Juliet, and Pariss deaths. This tragedy is increased and enhanced gradually throughout the play, especially by the nature of events, the vocabulary many of the characters use, and tragic events outside the main plot. In my opinion the most tragedy surrounds the idea that Romeo and Juliet perhaps werent truly in love with each other. The circumstances of their love, and the characters of Romeo and Juliet, make me think that their love was based simply on a teenage lust. Personally, I find the idea that they both died for something so frivolous and unsubstantial incredibly tragic. I think that Elizabethans would have reacted much more emotionally than people do when they watch the original play today. There are many points that enhance the plot, emotion, and tragedy, which Elizabethans would have immediately picked up on and understood, because they were commonly used idea at the time, unlike for audiences today. Also, plays in Elizabethan times theatres were like cinemas are for audiences today. They used the language of people of that time, and therefore the audience automatically appreciated the contextual aspects of the play. However, it is obvious that Romeo ; Juliet is still a widely enjoyed play. The themes of love, death, hatred, jealousy and guilt, which the play is based on, are themes that universally effect people, and the original play is amazingly well written. This makes audiences of today still want to hear the tale again and again.

Free Essays on Mimbres Bowl

The Mogollon people took their name from the Mogollon Mountains in New Mexico. From 200 B.C. until about A.D. 1300 their culture flourished. During the Mimbres period (A.D. 1050- c. 1300), the fifth and final period of their short history, they built apartment buildings and drainage systems, and also created what is considered the most important and beautiful pottery from the American Southwest. While their disappearance remains a mystery, their pottery offers great insight into the Mogollon belief system. A quintessential Mimbres piece, this bowl is decorated with geometric designs rendered in the classic black-on-white style. The shapes represent the Mogollons' six perceived directions of movement, and the shamanistic figure of the quail seen here is typical of the Mogollons' realistic art. Just as often, Mogollon artisans painted fantastic images mammals with fishtails, for example, or wings. Many bowls featured scenes of animal-to-human transformation, an indication that the pots were used during religious events. Some archaeologists surmise that the swirling geometric patterns and more fantastic illustrations were inspired by hallucinations; like other prehistoric American cultures, the Mogollons were known to use psychoactive plants for spiritual, medicinal, and recreational purposes. Mimbres pottery was a crucial element of the Mogollon death ritual. Custom dictated that Mogollons be buried under their homes, curled in a fetal position. Prior to burial, a bowl to be placed on the head of the deceased was ceremonially and symbolically killed, the hole in the center of the bowl representing the fatal wound. The killing of the bowl freed the potter's spirit to accompany the dead person into the afterlife. In this way the Mogollons are not considered disappeared, but are believed to live on in their contemporary descendants. Over the centuries, much Mogollon pottery has been destroyed by looters, but a 1989 law passed in ... Free Essays on Mimbres Bowl Free Essays on Mimbres Bowl The Mogollon people took their name from the Mogollon Mountains in New Mexico. From 200 B.C. until about A.D. 1300 their culture flourished. During the Mimbres period (A.D. 1050- c. 1300), the fifth and final period of their short history, they built apartment buildings and drainage systems, and also created what is considered the most important and beautiful pottery from the American Southwest. While their disappearance remains a mystery, their pottery offers great insight into the Mogollon belief system. A quintessential Mimbres piece, this bowl is decorated with geometric designs rendered in the classic black-on-white style. The shapes represent the Mogollons' six perceived directions of movement, and the shamanistic figure of the quail seen here is typical of the Mogollons' realistic art. Just as often, Mogollon artisans painted fantastic images mammals with fishtails, for example, or wings. Many bowls featured scenes of animal-to-human transformation, an indication that the pots were used during religious events. Some archaeologists surmise that the swirling geometric patterns and more fantastic illustrations were inspired by hallucinations; like other prehistoric American cultures, the Mogollons were known to use psychoactive plants for spiritual, medicinal, and recreational purposes. Mimbres pottery was a crucial element of the Mogollon death ritual. Custom dictated that Mogollons be buried under their homes, curled in a fetal position. Prior to burial, a bowl to be placed on the head of the deceased was ceremonially and symbolically killed, the hole in the center of the bowl representing the fatal wound. The killing of the bowl freed the potter's spirit to accompany the dead person into the afterlife. In this way the Mogollons are not considered disappeared, but are believed to live on in their contemporary descendants. Over the centuries, much Mogollon pottery has been destroyed by looters, but a 1989 law passed in ...

Essay about Reading by the Creek

Essay about Reading by the Creek Essay about Reading by the Creek Reading by the Creek It was a warm beautiful afternoon in late August, when I was sitting at my teacher, Mrs. Haun’s desk. I was just a child, six years old at the time. I looked at Mrs. Haun as she was dialing my mother’s number she peered back at me with utter disgust. When my mother answered on the other line, Mrs. Haun said â€Å"Mrs. Miller , hello this is Mrs. Haun† she paused for a brief moment and began talking again saying â€Å"yes Nikki is just fine, I would like for you to come in and have a meeting so I can discuss with you Nikki’s lack of reading. I am available this afternoon, can you come in today† she questioned my mother, then Mrs. Haun said â€Å"I will see you this afternoon at 3 o’clock then, thank you†. Then she hung up the phone. She looked back at me and said â€Å"your mother will be here soon and she will be very disappointed in you†, I just looked down at my hands which I had crossed on top of my blue jean skirt that mother had me wear. I was so scared that my mother would be ashamed of me for not knowing how to read and that I would be in trouble. The rest of that once proclaimed beautiful afternoon seemed as dark as a cellar. Not knowing exactly what was going to happen. Finally, the time that I had feared had came it was 3 o’clock all of my classmates had already gone home. My mother walked into Mrs. Haun’s classroom where I was sitting in time out, the first thing my mother asked her was â€Å"why do you have my daughter in time out† Mrs. Haun quickly said â€Å"she is in time out for not knowing how to read anything at all†, my mother was furious at this point, she looked at me and instructed me to get out of time out. She then looked back at my teacher and said â€Å"Nikki is only six years old, how can you expect her to know how to read everything you send home. She’s just a child†, Mrs. Haun tried telling my mother that I had fallen behind the other children that were in my class on reading skills all because I wasn’t being raised by both parents and even went as far as telling my mother that I would never have the skills to learn how to read, write legibly, add, or subtract. After hearing all of Mrs. Haun’s negativity about my upbringing , my mother looked at me and gave me and told me that I didn’t have anything to worry about , then she turned her attention back to my teacher. The words that came out of my mother’s mouth I will never forget, she said â€Å"I am not sure who you think you are to say that my daughter will never be as good as another student because she doesn’t have two parents raising her, since you brought it up, she didn’t have an option to have both of her parents, her father, my husband was killed two years ago in a car accident, but since you think my daughter can’t or won’t be able to do everything in school as well as another child, I will make sure you regret passing judgment on us or punishing Nikki for trying her best†. Mrs. Haun just sat there in a daze, she almost looked like a deer caught in the headlights of an oncoming vehicle, she started to say something, but my mother cut her off before she could, my mother then thanked her for her time and told her that she would see to it that I would get caught up before Christmas break . Mother instructed me to get my things and wait for her in the hallway that she needed to have a moment with my teacher, I did as she asked. I am not sure what was said between my mother and my

The Question Mark

The Question Mark The Question Mark The Question Mark By Sharon The question mark is used at the end of a direct question. Example: What is your name? she asked. It may also be used at the end of a tag question, which changes a statement into a question. Example: He left early, didnt he? Question marks should not be used at the end of indirect questions, such as: I asked my mother whether there were any messages. In a sentence which contains multiple questions, you may include a question mark after each. Example: Who saw the victim last? Her husband? Her son? Her daughter? Question marks are also used to denote missing information. This punctuation mark was first seen in the 8th century and was called the punctus interrogativus. There are many theories about the origin of the symbol, which has changed several times before settling on its current form in the 18th century. The Latin for question was quaestio, which was abbreviated to Qo in the Middle Ages. Its thought that the modern symbol represents the Q placed over the O. The term question mark dates from the 19th century. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:5 Uses of InfinitivesBody Parts as Tools of Measurement75 Synonyms for â€Å"Hard†

Gregor Mendel's ACTUAL Paper ( NOT Others opinions of it) Essay

Gregor Mendel's ACTUAL Paper ( NOT Others opinions of it) - Essay Example Furthermore, the essay also considers the criticisms levied against Mendel’s experiments by noted geneticist R.A. Fisher, and also examines criticism relating to the paper’s rhetorical structure. The opening sections of Mendel’s paper examines past scientific formulations, with Mendel noting that while detailed experiments had been undertaken, nothing in-depth to the extent that it would allow the development of a predictive genetic structure over multiple generations. The first section in which Mendel details the tenants of his experiment is titled ‘Selection of the Experimental Plants.’ In this section Mendel indicates the specific elements he used in selecting plants for his experiment and why these plants are necessary to achieve sound results. Mendel indicates that the characteristics in the plants must be objectively determined (long vs. short stems), as well as observed in every generation (for instance color), and finally they must be able to be bred in a controlled environment. Finally, Mendel indicates that he has chosen a pea plant named a Pisum, as it fits these distinctions. In the next section Mendel details the purpose of his experiment. He states that he intends to investigate the variety in traits that are passed down over the series of generations from the breeding of plants. He distinguishes seven specific traits that he will be observing, chosen for the reasons articulated above. Mendel indicates that past experiments have determined that when two plants with differing traits are bred they exhibit traits from only one plant, not a combination or blending of the two. Mendel refers to the trait that appears in the newly bred hybrid plant as the dominant trait, whereas the trait that isn’t physically detectable the recessive trait. The first experiment section is titled ‘First Generation From the Hybrids’. This section

Multiple Regression Empirical Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Multiple Regression Empirical Project - Essay Example A billion dollar increase in net exports holding consumption and direct foreign investments constant leads to 0.47 billion dollar increase in GDP. Considering consumption alone, it was found out that a billion dollar increase in consumption leads to 1.43 billion dollars increase in GDP and that consumption levels explains 99.84% of the total variations in GDP [r2 (60) = 0.9984]. Further, taking foreign direct investments alone, it was found that a billion dollar increase in foreign direct investment leads to 5.33 billion dollars increase in GDP. This model was found to be significant at 5% level of significance and that FDI explains 96.39% of the total variations in GDP Lastly, a billion dollar increase in net exports led to 17.47 billion dollars decrease in GDP and the model with NE alone was found to be significant at 5% level of significance and that NE explains 54.41% of the total variations in GDP. This study aimed at determining the impact of responsible consumption, foreign direct investments and net exports and employed the use of secondary data to proof the objectives. Different writers have argued that consumptions and investments are the key variables on which the GDP depends most. However, other variables like irresponsible consumptions, political un-rests, environmental degradation, and lack of government priorities translate to irresponsible spending are some other factors which should be taken care of for GDP to grow. GDP is the cumulative amount of goods/services which a country produces within a given year (Hall and Mishkin 1982; Hill 1992). When GDP changes, then a country is said to have experienced economic growth (if positive change) and economic melt-down (if negative growth-previous year’s performance is better than current year’s). Factors like level of consumption, direct foreign investments and net exports are some of the factors which contribute to positive GDP growth, hence economic growth (Haron 2005). High direct foreign

Ethics and Values in Social work (National policy to promote equality, Essay

Ethics and Values in Social work (National policy to promote equality, enclusion independance) - Essay Example This paper delves in illustrating how the free meals policy in school has brought equality, independence, and inclusion among the pupils in pre-primary schools and students in post primary schools (Cross 2009) It is noted that this policy has however not stopped those pupils that are able to carry packed meals. The report found that providing hot lunches is more nutritious than bringing in a packed lunch, of which only 1 per cent meet the nutritional standards that currently apply to school food. This development in the England schools improved performance – students in pilot areas were two months ahead of their peers elsewhere. Chris Hazzard retaliated the importance of the free school meals when he said, â€Å"Many children were going to school without a proper lunch due to families being unable to either supply a packed lunch or pay for school meals.† (Gordon 2013) Free school Meals are services that are provided to school going children living in England that meet c urrent criteria as set out by the government. Universal free school meals will help give every child the chance in life that they deserve, building a stronger economy and fairer society. â€Å"Free School Meals are a crucial entitlement for families living in poverty† (children society). ... This has been emphasized and stressed by Nick Clegg, former prime minister when he said that, "A healthy hot meal gives children the ability to concentrate and do well in the classroom" (Cross 2009) â€Å"Healthy eating can stabilize children’s energy, sharpen their minds, and even out their moods,† Nutrition for Children. I wish to retaliate from the above that School meals for the children from poor families help them develop good and healthy eating habits. This is because their parents may not be able to provide proper and healthy diets at home due to insufficient income. A balanced healthy eating habit is required for every child developmental needs in biological, physical and psychological advancements. However, it must be brought to attention that the FSM as earlier stated is only available under certain criterion, which is available only if the parent of the child is in receipt of income support, income based jobseekers allowance, income related employment, any f orm of revenue and support allowance under part V1 of the Immigration Act of 1999 (Gordon 2013) The guaranteed element of state pension credit, and Child Tax Credits were also key factors put into consideration by the Government of United Kingdom before they dispatched the free school meals to the pupils. However, it must be stressed and vividly put into consideration that families in receipt of the Working Tax element of Tax credits are excluded and do not qualify under this policy for the free school meals. †Giving people something for nothing is rarely unpopular, even when they are paying for it through their taxes.† as it was said by Ross Hawkins .Based on this evidence it could be suggested that the government made an

Insurance law Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Insurance law - Research Paper Example The insured party is not compensated by the insurer. This type of policy is commonly taken by those owning automobile. 2. Third-party, theft and fire. This type of cover is an extension of the third-party cover by including risks associated with theft and fire. The risks covers the policyholder only not the third party. 3. Comprehensive cover: this type of covers insures the insured plus the other party who incurred loss caused by the inured party. Comprehensive cover is more advantageous than third party insurance. One is returned back to the level he/she was before the predetermined risk occurred Insurance just like any field has to have its principles to ensure a fair playing field among the involved parties. These principles are regarded as the pillars of insurance and ingredients for transformation. This principle gives the policyholder who has been insured against a predetermined the right to be compensated. The compensation should restore the policyholder back to where he/she was before the risk occurs. Therefore, one should not expect to be paid much than what he/she suffered as a result of the risk. Insurance is a contract and thus, requires information from both parties to be bias free. It is from the information that premium is calculated and therefore, information inconsistency and inaccuracy may lead to wrong premium calculation and interfere with compensation. Health insurance is most affected with this principle since any omission in the health satus of the insured might compel the insurer not to compensate the insured in case a risk occurred and the insurer had no information regarding certain element of the health status of the insured. This principle covers the issue surrounding premium. An insured party is expected to pay a predetermined amount of cash referred to as premium for him/her to be compensated when a risk occurs. Failure to pay the agreed amount might result for one not being compensated in case a risk

Research Methods in Education Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Methods in Education - Research Proposal Example This discourse seeks to investigate whether and to what extent the provisioning education incentives to further the pedagogical knowledge of teachers would help reduce the incidences of turnovers in a commercial international language school in Thailand. Context background The teacher is the most vital aspect of any educational program and the quality of the teacher is dependent upon their qualifications, which includes the extent and duration of their pre-service field experiences and the characteristics of their ongoing professional development (Decker, Decker, Freeman, and Knopf, 2009). In addition, teachers’ beliefs have an influential role in determining their professional behaviour and affect not only their teaching, but also filter new information and suggest major implications for the functioning of educational innovations and teacher development (Mohamed, 2006). The role of teachers in providing quality basic education for all children becomes increasingly pivotal in regards to developing nations seeking to achieve, consolidate and sustain progress towards economic growth and it is estimated that 18 million additional teachers are required by 2015 in order for all children to have access to a high quality education (Mpokosa and Ndaruhutse, 2008). Furthermore, the qualification, training and motivation of teachers ensure that the system is staffed with competent and dedicated professionals (Mpokosa and Ndaruhutse, 2008). These elements have a significant impact on the program’s quality and are an important factor in determining the likelihood that the curriculum will contribute to children’s growth and development as well as their success in school and beyond (Decker, Decker, Freeman, and Knopf, 2009). Labour is the most expensive aspect of any educational programs and, in a high-quality program, approximately 70% of the budget is comprised of teachers salaries and benefits (Decker, Decker, Freeman, and Knopf, 2009). For financially challenged programs, low wages result in less qualified employees at the point of entry, less incentive for employees to increase skills because of the lack of significant monetary compensation, and greater employee turnover rates (Decker, Decker, Freeman, and Knopf, 2009). Without adequate staff compensation linked to training and experience, early childhood programs will continue to be of mediocre quality and experience high staff turnover rates and the trade-off for low salaries and benefits is typically a low-quality program (Decker, Decker, Freeman, and Knopf, 2009). However, research indicates that there is a positive relationship between program quality and budget allocations for teacher salaries and benefits in that programs that spent approximately two thirds of their budgets on salaries and staff benefits tended to be of high quality, and quality diminished considerably in programs spending less than one half of their budgets on salaries and staff benefits (Decker, Decker , Freeman, and Knopf, 2009). Providing professional development and technical assistance to all staff members as a means to increase their level of performance, professional standards, performance management, ongoing continuing

Education in India Essay Example for Free

Education in India Essay Takshasila was the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from at least 5th century BCE and it is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of university. [2] Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj. Overall System Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: central,state, and local. Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the State Governments, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are controlled by the Union or the State Government. The National Policy on Education (NPE) is a policy formulated by the Government of India to promote education amongst Indias people. The policy covers elementary education to colleges in both rural and urban India. The first NEP was promulgated in 1968 by the government of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, and the second by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1986. It emphasizes three aspects in relation to elementary education: * universal access and enrolment, * universal retention of children up to 14 years of age, and * a substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to achieve * Revival of Sanskrit and other classical languages for contemporary use. Today education system in India can be divided into many stages. * Pre- Primary It consists of children of 3-5 years of age studying in nursery, lower kindergarten and upper kindergarten. At this stage student is given knowledge about school life and is taught to read and write some basic words. * Primary It includes the age group of children of 6-11 years studying in classes from first to fifth. * Middle It consists of children studying in classes from sixth to eighth. * Secondary it includes students studying in classes ninth and tenth. * Higher Secondary Includes students studying in eleventh and twelfth classes. * Undergraduate Here, a student goes through higher education, which is completed in college. This course may vary according to the subject pursued by the student. For medical student this stage is of four and a half years plus one year of compulsory internship, while a simple graduate degree can be attained in three years. * Postgraduate After completing graduation a student may opt for post graduation to further add to his qualifications. 10+2+3 pattern [. * The central and most state boards uniformly follows the 10+2+3 pattern of education. [11]:3 In this pattern, 10 years of primary and secondary education is followed by 2 years of higher secondary (usually in schools having the higher secondary facility, or in colleges),[11]:44 and then 3 years of college education for bachelors degree. [12] Distant Education * National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi is one of the mega open universities in the world and caters to around 1 million students around the world. Vocational Education. Vocational Education at Certificate level are offered by 1500 vocational institutions in the country in the areas of agriculture, business, commerce, health and para-medical, home science and humanities in addition to engineering trades. Primary Education in India The World Education Forum, held in 2000 set an ambitious goal: universal primary education by the year 2015. Schooling all children until they reach young adulthood is recognized as important because it leads to many substantial positive effects: better family health, lower birth rate, higher productivity, higher earnings, and improved economics of the country as a whole. Globally, however, more than 115 million children of primary school age do not attend school. The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education up to the age of fourteen years, referred to as elementary education in India. [14] The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions. Further, education has been made free[14] for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009. [18] Current status of primary education in IndiaAbout 20% of Indian children between the ages of six and 14 are not enrolled in school. Even among enrolled children, attendance rates are low and 26% of pupils enrolled in primary school drop out before Grade 5. The situation is worse in certain sectors of the population Despite a vibrant emerging economy and a string of excellent colleges that produce high caliber professionals, India has not made the grade yet on primary education. Hurdles in primary education (double it as general problems as well) Shortage of resources and lack of political will. High pupil to teacher ratios,(shortage of teachers –one teacher schools) Shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training. (toilet for girls etc. ) The National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education of 2009 recommended longer preparation for teachers, but the B. Ed curriculum structure continued to be for a single year. There is also a lack of enough skilled trainers and preparation to develop skills, abilities and attitudes to teach students. Poverty and illiteracy of the parent Gender Issues(girls cannot study). Social Issues like caste system (some castes are not allowed) Several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. (primary education) The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system. [19] 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states. [19] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3. 5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes. [19] . [19] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme. [19] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality HERE first Write to improve all the above negative issues. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)/Right to Education (RTE). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All Movement) is a programme by the Government of India aimed at the universalization of elementary education in a time bound manner, as mandated by the 86th amendment to the Constitution of India making free education to children aged 6–14 (estimated to be 205 million in number in 2001) a fundamental right. The programme was pioneered by Atal Bihari Vajpayee. SSA is being implemented in partnership with State Governments to cover the entire country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1. 1 million habitations. In FY 2009-10,60% of SSA funds came from GOI. This has now been revised to 65%. The programme is looking to open new schools in those habitations without schooling facilities and to strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants. SSA is now the primary vehicle for implementing the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE). National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) The National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL), is a focused intervention of Government of India, to reach the â€Å"Hardest to Reach† girls, especially those not in school. Launched in July 2003, it is an important component of SSA, which provides additional support for enhancing girl’s education over and above the investments for girl’s education through normal SSA interventions. The programme provides for development of a â€Å"model school† in every cluster with more intense community mobilization and supervision of girls enrolment in schools. Gender sensitization of teachers, development of gender-sensitive learning materials, and provision of need-based incentives like escorts, stationery, workbooks and uniforms are some of the endeavors under the programme. The future of primary education in India The importance of universal primary education has now been widely recognized by everyone involved. Policies and pledges are easy to make but implementation can be difficult and goals hard to achieve, especially in a vast and populous country such as India. International agencies, the government of India, and the numerous NGOs will have to work together with will, wisdom and tremendous energy to make their desire for universal primary education by 2015 a reality in India. Secondary education. For several decades, it has been argued in the literature that secondary education needs to be expanded both as a response to increased social demand and as a feeder cadre for higher education, giving little emphasis to its other important functions. It is also argued that investment in secondary education yields considerable social and economic returns, making it crucial for national development India is following a service-led growth model and striving hard to survive the global competition, in these conditions it is being increasingly recognised that secondary education, is the most critical segment of the education chain. Apart from the bottom-up pressure (i. e. arising from the growth of primary schooling) and the top-down pressure (as the source of potential intakes for higher education) for its expansion, there is a need to pay greater attention to secondary education as it caters to the needs of the most important segment of the population – adolescents and youth, the source of the future human and social capital of a nation. Secondary education covers children 14–18 which covers 88. 5 million children according to the Census, 2001. Features * A significant feature of Indias secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society. * Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. * Another feature of Indias secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing. [27] * A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[28] Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education. [7] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[29] The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 for the employees of the central government of India to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employees family has been transferred. [7] Policy Initiatives in secondary education After independence, the first step towards improving policy planning for development of secondary education was the setting up of the Secondary Education Commission in 1952(also known as the Mudaliar Commission). The primary objective of the Commission was todiagnose the growth pattern and suggest measures for reorganisation and improvement ofsecondary education. The commission’s major recommendation was to develop a 3-yearnational system of secondary education after 8-years of elementary education (8 + 3 systemof school education) to make it a complete stage. The commission also recommended thereconstruction of the syllabus to provide a wider and more balanced course and adopt mother tongue as the medium of instruction (Kabir, 1955). Nearly one-and-a-half decades after the Mudaliar Commission, the Kothari Commission(1964-66), while articulating goals and objectives at all stages of education in the context ofnational development priorities, recommended for a 4-year secondary education system anddiscontinuing the practice of ‘streaming’ up to Grade X. It may be noted that, ten years afterthe commission submitted its report; education was placed in the Concurrent List States and the centre responsible for its development. This changed the policy context fordevelopment of secondary education. The National Policy on Education (NPE), of 1986 subsequently reiterated the views of the Education Commission to implement a 4-year secondary education system across the states and UTs. 23 The NPE emphasised improving equitable access to secondary education and the enrolment of girls, SCs and STs, particularly in science, commerce and vocational streams (Para 5. 13 of the NPE, 1986). The NPE and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992 while recognising secondary education as a critical instrument for social change, called for its planned expansion. The NPE, (as modified in 1992) specifically laid emphasis again on increasing access to secondary education with particular focus on participation of girls, SCs and STs; increased autonomy of Boards ofSecondary Education to enhance their ability to improve quality; introduction of ICT inschool curriculum for coping with globalisation; renewed emphasis on work ethos and valuesof a humane and  composite culture in the curricula; And vocationalisation through specialisedinstitutions or through the refashioning of secondary education to meet the manpower requirements of the growing Indian economy Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) This scheme was launched in March, 2009 with the objective to enhance access to secondary education and to improve its quality. The implementation of the scheme started from 2009-10. It is envisaged to achieve an enrolment rate of 75% from 52. 26% in 2005-06 at secondary stage within 5 years of implementation of the scheme by providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of any habitation. The other objectives include improving quality of education imparted at secondary level through making all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms, removing gender, socio-economic and disability barriers, providing universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i. e. , by the end of 12th Five Year Plan and achieving universal retention by 2020. Inclusive Education for the Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) The Scheme of Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) has been launched from the year 2009-10. This Scheme replaces the earlier scheme of Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) and would provide assistance for the inclusive education of the disabled children in classes IX-XIITo enable all students with disabilities, after completing eight years of elementary schooling, to pursue further four years of secondary schooling in an inclusive and enabling environment. Higher education Indias higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States. [32] The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state. [33] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission. [34] In India, education system is reformed. In future, India will be one of the largest education hub. After passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12 examination), students may enroll in general degree programmes such as bachelors degreein arts, commerce or science, or professional degree programmes such as engineering, law or medicine. [31] As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100 deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 33 institutes which are of national importance. [33] Other institutions include 16,000 colleges, including 1,800 exclusive womens colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions. [33] The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology. [35] Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes. [36] Distance learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system. [36] Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their standard of undergraduate education in engineering. [36] The IITs enroll about 10,000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India. [37] Several other institutes of fundamental research such as the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS), Indian Institute of Science IISC), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Harishchandra Research Institute (HRI), are acclaimed for their standard of research in basic sciences and mathematics. Government programs on Education Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan[. The Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan is a centrally sponsored flagship umbrella scheme aimed at providing strategic funding to State higher and technical institutions. States will develop comprehensive state higher education plans that utilize an interconnected strategy to address issues of expansion, equity and excellence together. Central funding will be linked to academic, administrative and financial reforms of state higher education. The Rashtriya Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan proposes to put a ceiling of maximum number of colleges to be affiliated to any university at two hundred . [17] Higher Education and Eleventh Plan (2007-2012) With the objectives and proposals of the Plan as the basis, the report mentions that the private sector has played an instrumental role in the growth of the sector. Private institutions now account for 64% of the total number of institutions and 59% of enrollment in the country, as compared to 43% and 33%, respectively, a decade ago. The Government has also given the required thrust to the sector in its Five Year Plans. During the Eleventh Plan period (2007–2012), India achieved a Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) of 17. 9%, up from 12. 3% at the beginning of the Plan period. India’s higher education system faces challenges on three fronts: Expansion:India’s GER of16% was much below the world average of 27%, as well as that of other emerging countries such as China (26%) and Brazil (36%) in 2010. Excellence:Faculty shortage there is 40% and 35% shortage of faculty in state and central universities, respectively. Accredited institutions 62% of universities and 90% of colleges were average or below average in 2010, on the basis of their NAAC accreditation. Low citation impact India’s relative citation impact is half the world average. Equity There is wide disparity in the GER of higher education across states and the Gross Attendance Ratio (GAR) in urban and rural areas, and gender- and community-wise Drawbacks of Indian Higher Education System * Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupils, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. * Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Indian Government has failed to check on these education shops, which are run by big businessmen politicians. * Many private colleges and universities do not fulfill the required criterion by the Government and central bodies (UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI etc. ) and take students for a ride. * Quality assurance mechanism has failed to stop misrepresentations and malpractices in higher education. At the same time regulatory bodies have been accused of corruption, specifically in the case of deemed-universities. [39] Road Ahead in Higher Education * Merit-based student financing: This should ensure admissions to meritorious students independent of financial background * Internationalization of education: This would entail aligning different aspects of education (curriculum, faculty, etc) to international standards * Enabling a research environment. This would involve creating adequate means of research funding and practical application of research * High quality faculty: The need of the hour is to create a conducive environment and provide incentives to attract and retain high quality faculty. * Improved technology for education delivery: Leveraging technology for enhancing the teaching-learning experience will ensure better outcomes * Employability: Making education-industry relevant and practical would be the right way to ensure a highly employable talent pool India’s higher education system can be expected to be better aligned to industry and global practices, and be more transparent and inclusive by the end of Twelfth Plan period, provided the Government is able to create an enabling regulatory environment and put in place robust implementation, monitoring and quality assurance mechanisms. * Legislative support. One of the most talked about bill is Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed to facilitate entry of foreign universities to establish campuses in India. * Private Sector-The private sector can be expected to play an instrumental role in the achievement of these outcomes through the creation of knowledge networks, research and innovation centers, corporate-backed institutions, and support for faculty development. Saakshar Bharat (Saakshar Bharat)/Adult Education. The Prime Minister of India launched Saakshar Bharat, a centrally sponsored scheme of Department of School Education and Literacy (DSEL), Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India (GOI), on the International Literacy Day, 8th September, 2009. It aims to further promote and strengthen Adult Education, specially of women, Education Governing Bodies he Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): This is the main governing body of education system in India. It has control over the central education system. It conducts exam and looks after the functioning of schools accredited to central education system. * The Council of Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE): It is a board for Anglo Indian Studies in India. It conducts two examinations Indian Certificate of Secondary Education and Indian School Certificate. Indian Certificate of secondary education is a k-10 examination for those Indian students who have just completed class 10th and Indian school certificate is a k-12 public examination conducted for those studying in class 12th. * The State Government Boards: Apart from CBSE and CISCE each state in India has its own State Board of education, which looks after the educational issues. * The National Open School: It is also known as National Institute of Open Schooling. It was established by the Government Of India in 1989. It is a ray of hope for those students who cannot attend formal schools. * The International School: It controls the schools, which are accredited to curriculum of international standard. * Classification of Colleges. Colleges in India come under four different categories. This categorization is done on the basis of the kind of courses offered by them (professional/ vocational) / their ownership status( Private/ Government) or their relationship with the university (affiliated/university owned). University Colleges These colleges are managed by the university itself and situated mostly in the university campus. Government Colleges The government colleges are few, only about 15-20 percent of the total. They are managed by state governments. As in case of other colleges, the university to which these colleges are affiliated, conducts their examination, lays down the courses of studies and awards the degrees. Professional Colleges The professional colleges are mostly in the disciplines of medicine, engineering and management. There are few for other disciplines too. They are sponsored and managed either by the government or by private initiative. Privately Managed colleges About 70% of the colleges are founded by the privately owned trusts or societies. But these institutes are also governed by the rules and regulations of the university they are affiliated to. Though initially started up as a private initiative, the state government also funds these college Private Education What is it? What is the need for it ? What are benefits? What are problems with it? What can be done to streamline it? India saw the largest increase in literacy rate in the decadeof 1991–2001 — from about 52 per cent to 65 per cent. From 2001 to 2011, the literacy rate increased by 9 per cent to 74 per cent (Planning Commission 2011). The 13 per cent increase in 1991–2001 has been the largest for any 10-year period in the history of the country. Private investments and the emergence of budget private schools was the main cause for this.! As parents began to earn more in the post-reform era, they began to invest in their children. As better employment opportunities arose, the value of education became more apparent to parents. This increased demand for education was met by a rapid expansion of budget private schools The biggest success story of literacy in India has been written withprivate initiative — parents’ willingness to pay and the edupreneur innovation of an aff ordable school. In post-liberalisation India, the importance of the private sector in economic growth is well understood and appreciated. For economic growth, the state’s role is primarily to enable the private sector as a facilitator, prudent regulator, impartial enforcer of contracts, and at times as a financier Incentives for efficiency are also weak. Government employees have little incentive to minimise costs, fi nd and correct mistakes, innovate, and acquire necessary information about resources and consumer demand. The high teacher absenteeism in government schools is just one indicator of poor incentives. . High prices in terms of tuition fees, donations andlong queues for admissions are signs of the shortage of quality educational institutions. The same paucity of supply existed for consumer goods before the 1991 liberalisation. The license-permit-quota raj still exists in our education system. Schools and colleges need to be made accountable not to education bureaucrats (licensors) but to parents and students (customers). The government policy should be to increase choice and competition in education as it has been done in many areas of the economy — facilitate, not control. The core competency of the private and public sectors should be combined. The private sector should be allowed to produce education — manage schools and colleges — and provide it to all who can aff ord to pay. For those who cannot aff ord to pay, the government should finance their education through scholarships, education vouchers and loans. Instead of focusing on the inputs to education, the government ensures the output — meaningful, high quality learning. This approach combines the efficiency and accountability of the private sector with the equity and independent supervision of the public sector. . Governments and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) should evaluate schools and colleges and publish the results so that parents can make informed decisions. One key goal of global reformers is to increase the accountability of schools towards parents — restructure the system so that schools are at least as much accountable to parents as they are to the education offi cials. There are many ways to achieve this goal: put parents on school boards or district education councils, give powers to parent-teacher associations, create something like our village education committees . One new idea in this bucket is that of school vouchers. Several countries have undertaken pilot projects. The voucher is a tool to change the way governments finance education, particularly of the poor. It is a coupon off ered by the government that covers full or partial cost of education at the school of the student’s choice. The schools collect vouchers from the students, deposit them in their bank accounts and the banks then credit the school accounts with equivalent money while debiting the account of the government. Section 12 of the RTE requires private unaided schools to reserve 25 per cent seats in the entry-level class (nursery or Class I) for socially disadvantaged and economically weaker sections. The government would provide private schools with reimbursements equal to their fees or the per student cost in government schools, whichever is lower. EDUCATION REFORM Just as in economic reforms, the list of education reform ideas could be quite long. This paper suggests that two principles should be the focus of reforms in the education ecosystem — effi cient use of public funds and the promotion of equity and quality through choice and competition. Achieve Efficient Use of Public Funds. (a) Fund students, not schools (school vouchers, charter schools, conditional cash transfers); (b) Convert state funding to per student basis and link it to performance; (d) Give poorly performing state schools to private parties on learning outcome contracts; (e) Hire teachers at the school level, not at the state level; Promote Equity and Quality through Choice and Competition: (i) Apply the same standards to both private as well as government schools; (ii) Annual independent learning outcome assessment across all schools; (iii) Decentralise and depoliticise syllabi and textbooks; (iv) Open Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and state board exams to all students, not only for students who study in CBSE or state board affiliated schools.

Pedagogical Principles of Teaching

Pedagogical Principles of Teaching Developing Teaching, Learning and Assessment in Education and Training 1.1 Analyse the application of pedagogical principles in own area of specialism. Pedagogical Model: Understanding by Design (UbD) is an academic framework for designing curriculum units, performance assessments and instruction that evolve a deeper and better understanding amongst the learners. It facilitates the process of learning by setting achievable goals and objectives. Designed by Grant Wiggins and Jay Mc Tighe, the model scrutinises the traditional methods and suggests more coherent, versatile and conductive ways related to planning, teaching and assessing. The essence of the model lies in to begin with the end in mind. It simply implies to keep the destination in mind before taking the first leap thereby taking steps in the right direction. The process of learning in human beings is constantly under research and tight scrutiny. Over a period of time, many researchers of this field have concluded that human ability to learn is greatly affected by the interaction of ideas. The exchange of meaningful learning experiences in progressive and conducive environments assists in discovering and exploiting our potentials to their optimum levels. The learning experiences are very often used by the teachers to motivate the quest of learning amongst the students. The sharing of poor ideas helps us to interact and foment a climate of understanding thereby developing new learning scenarios. This meaningful interaction puts great influence on the process of learning as a whole. We also learn to interpret new experiences and modify our own conceptions through the dialogue. In order to make best utilization of this concept, we need to create meaningful activity and relate it to our perceptions of life. In light of this research, new processes and learning methodologies are being evolved to help learners and teachers in making its best utilization. Grant Wiggins and Jay Mc Tighe are the pioneers in implementing the concept on ground by designing a new methodology of learning called the Backward Design. The use of Backward Design model as part of the concept of Understanding by Design has proved to be an extremely effective tool in addressing the learning needs of human beings (Hammond, 2005). The Backward Design model provides a new approach to teachers and learners by focusing on keeping the goals and objectives in mind. This design puts less emphasis on the specific activities of and rather involves paying attention to the strategic intents and outcomes of their curriculum. The model starts with defining what students want to achieve or know and then framing curriculum which guides to the desired objective. Although the Backward Design does not totally oppose the traditional methods, however it objects to the routine collection of facts that one often tends to forget after the test (Pankratz Petrosko, 2000). Unless it has been decided as what the students should understand (objectives), plans cannot be made to substantiate the effort required to be put in to achieve those goals. Once the curriculum designer knows what students should understand, consideration moves to how to capture and document this understanding. The enduring understanding is the hallmark of the Backward Design. All the planning perimeters and curriculum designing are of little use until the principles of backward design are kept in mind. The sole purpose is to progressively achieve those levels of understanding which human mind has never experienced before. The efficacy of this model can be best visualised from the fact that at Harvard Graduate School of Education, the most efficient model of learning being prescribed and pursued is the Teaching for Understanding which in many ways goes in line with the concept of Understanding by Design (Wiske, 2005). 1.2 Evaluate the effectiveness of use of creative and innovative approaches in own area of specialism. Principles of Teaching and Learning in Teaching Maths: Students learn maths through the experiences that teachers provide. Teachers must know and understand deeply the maths they are teaching and understand and be committed to their students as learners of maths and as human beings. There is no one right way to teach. Nevertheless, much is known about effective maths teaching. Selecting and using suitable curricula materials, using appropriate instructional tools and techniques to support learning and pursuing a continuous self-improvement are actions good teachers take every day. The teacher is responsible for creating an intellectual environment in the classroom where serious engagement in mathematical thinking is the norm. Effective teaching requires deciding what aspects of a task to highlight, how to organise and orchestrate the work of students, what questions to ask the students having varied level of expertise and how to support students without taking over the process of thinking for them. Effective thinking requires continuing effort to learn and improve. Teachers need to increase their knowledge about maths and pedagogy, learn from their students and colleagues, and engage in professional development and self-reflection. Collaborating with others paring an experienced teacher with a new teacher or forming a community of teachers to observe, analyse and discuss teaching and students thinking is a powerful, yet neglected form of professional development. Teachers need ample opportunities to engage in this kind of continual learning. The working lives of teachers must be structured to allow and support different models of professional development that benefit them and their students. Features of effective learning and teaching in maths: From the early stages onwards, children and young people should experience success in maths and develop the confidence to take risks, asks questions and explore alternative solutions without fear of being wrong. They will enjoy exploring and applying mathematical concepts to understand and solve problems, explaining their thinking and presenting their solutions to others in a variety of ways. At all stages, an emphasis on collaborative learning will encourage children to reason logically and creatively through discussion of mathematical ideas and concepts. The experiences and outcomes encourage learning and teaching approaches that challenge and stimulate children and young people and promote their enjoyment of maths. To achieve this, teachers will use a skilful mix of approaches, including: planned active learning which provides opportunities to observe, explore, investigate, experiment, play, discuss and reflect modelling and scaffolding the development of mathematical thinking skills; learning collaboratively and independently; opportunities for discussion; communication and explanation of thinking; developing mental agility; using relevant contexts and experiences familiar to young people; making links across the curriculum to show how mathematical concepts are applied in a wide range of contexts, such as those provided by sciences and social sciences using technology in appropriate and effective ways; building on the principles of assessment for learning; ensuring that young people understand young people understand the purpose an d relevance of what they are learning; developing problem-solving capabilities and critical thinking skills. Teachers need to understand and be committed to their students as learners of maths and as human beings and be skilful in choosing from and using a variety of pedagogical and assessment strategies (National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future1996). In addition, effective teaching requires reflection and continual efforts to seek improvement. Teachers need to understand the big ideas of maths and be able to represent maths as a coherent and connected enterprise (Schifter 1999; Ma 1999). Teachers also need to understand different representations of an idea, the relative strengths and weaknesses of each, and how they are related to one another (Wilson, Shulman and Richert 1987) As a maths teacher, I apply the following teaching approaches: Individual Work: I still believe that individual work has the most significant and effective influence on students. Individual work facilitates one on one interaction among students and teachers. I still believe that individual work has the most significant and effective influence on students. Individual work facilitates one on one interaction among students and teachers. Some limitations include: While individual work will enable the students to improve their performance level, and teachers to individually assess the students. However it does not facilitate any team work or collaboration between the students, and the students would feel isolated. It would also restrict the students from learning and obtaining effective experiences and knowledge from other students. Group Work: I believe that group work is essential to develop team work and facilitate collaboration between students. As a religious studies teacher I believe that it is essential to promote social harmony and facilitate collaborative work between culturally diverse individuals and groups of individuals. Group work facilitates effective participation and communication, and also builds up leadership skills among students. It is perceived by many experts that group work provides a basis for effective team work, leadership, communication and collaboration (Wurdinger Carlson, 2009). Limitations include: Even though group work is an effective learning tool, the resources required for group work is high. Group work requires a significant amount of time, materials and space. If the teacher is not able to provide these resources to students, the group work will not be effective. Furthermore group work can also have many disputes which would hinder the main objective of undertaking group wo rk. Also there is the limitation of all students not participating equally for group work. Presentations: Presentations are considered to be the most effective tool of visual learning. Presentations are utilized by teachers to increase the interest and concentration level of students. Earlier students were provided with study notes and the teacher followed the provided material. There was a clear limitation in this method, as the students lost concentration and interest in this method. Especially I have experienced that utilizing presentations for a subject such as religious studies, helps to attract the students and maintain their interest. Experts believe that presentations are more effective and accurate than utilizing printed material. I agree with this statement and believe in utilizing effective presentation during my teaching sessions (Wilson, 2009). Limitations include: Presentation require a high level of software and hardware equipment. Personally I have experienced difficulties due to the limitations of resources, and I have been unable to effectively present th e study material effectively. Both teachers and students have faced hardships due to these limitations and few study sessions have been wasted due to these restrictions. Online Learning and Group Discussions: I promote online learning among my students as I believe that online learning provides a great way for the students to obtain timely and relevant information related to the subject matter. It would also enable the students to obtain information regarding the most recent developments. Online discussion also helps students to interact and share their knowledge with others and also obtain support from the teacher outside classroom hours. I agree with the experts that online learning has a plethora of advantages, which facilitate a more effective knowledge sharing and learning culture among the students (Bender, 2003). Limitations include: the lack of resources. There are many students who do not have access to web sources and have no proper ICT knowledge. Also depending too much on online resources would sometimes be inaccurate and also deviate students from their primary objective. Tutorials: In addition to my lessons, I always ensure to hold a considerable number of tutorial sessions for my students. With experience I have realized that tutorials help the students to obtain a better understanding about the subject matter and apply the theoretical knowledge obtained during the study sessions. Limitation include: I have observed that at times tutorials tend to make students follow the lesson mechanically, instead of obtaining an in-depth understanding about the subject matter. References Bender, T. (2003), Discussion-based Online Teaching to Enhance Student Learning, Stylus Publishing, United States. Wilson, L. (2009) Practical Teaching: A guide to PTLLS DTLLS, London: Cengage Learning EMEA Wilson, S. M., Shulman, L. S. Richert, A. E. (1987). 150 Different Ways of Knowing: Representations of Knowledge in Teaching. In J. Calderhead (Ed.), Exploring Teachers Thinking (pp.104-124). London: Cassell. Wiggins, G., McTighe, J. (2011). The Understanding by Design guide to creating high-quality units. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Wurdinger, S. D. and Carlson, J. A. (2009), Teaching for Experimental Learning, Rowman and Littlefield Education, United State. Schifter, D. (1999). Reasoning about operations: Early algebraic thinking, grades K through 6. (pp 62-81). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Ma, L. (1999). Knowing and teaching elementary mathematics: Teachers understanding of fundamental mathematics in China and the United States. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.